New Deal

Bu yazımızda son zamanlarda büyük ilgi ve tartışma yaratan New Deal konusuna değineceğiz. Ortaya çıkışından bu yana New Deal, modern toplumun çeşitli yönleriyle olan ilgisi ve etkisi nedeniyle uzmanların, akademisyenlerin ve genel kamuoyunun dikkatini çekti. Bu sayfalarda New Deal'e dair farklı yaklaşım ve bakış açılarının yanı sıra teknoloji, siyaset, kültür ve ekonomi gibi çok çeşitli alanlara olan etkisi de incelenecek. Amaç, tartışmayı zenginleştirmek ve New Deal'in ve günümüzdeki anlamının daha derinlemesine anlaşılmasını teşvik etmek amacıyla konuya ilişkin kapsamlı ve güncel bir bakış açısı sunmaktır.

Üst sol: 1933'te yasalaşan Tennessee Valley Authority yasası
Üst sağ: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Yeni Düzen'in başkanı.
Alt: New Deal tarafından istihdam edilen sanatçılardan birinin kamu duvar resmi.

New Deal (Türkçe: Yeni Düzen), Başkan Franklin D. Roosevelt tarafından 1933 ile 1938 yılları arasında ABD'yi Büyük Buhran'dan kurtarmak için yürürlüğe konulan bir dizi program, kamu çalışma projesi, mali reform ve düzenlemeydi. Buhranın içsel piyasa istikrarsızlığından kaynaklandığına ve ekonomiyi rasyonalize etmek ve istikrara kavuşturmak için genelde hükûmet müdahalesinin gerekli olduğuna inanılıyordu.

Sivil Koruma Kolordusu (CCC), İş İlerleme İdaresi (WPA), Sivil İşler İdaresi (CWA), Çiftlik Güvenlik İdaresi (FSA), 1933 Ulusal Endüstriyel Kurtarma Yasası (NIRA) ve Sosyal Güvenlik İdaresi (SSA) dahil olmak üzere büyük federal programlar ve ajanslar çiftçilere, işsizlere, gençlere ve yaşlılara destek sağladı. Yeni Düzen, bankacılık sektöründe yeni kısıtlamalar ve güvenlik önlemleri ve fiyatlar keskin bir şekilde düştükten sonra ekonomiyi yeniden canlandırma çabalarını içeriyordu. Yeni Düzen programları hem Kongre tarafından çıkarılan yasaları hem de Franklin D. Roosevelt'in başkanlığının ilk döneminde başkanlık yürütme emirlerini içeriyordu.

Programların asıl amacı Büyük Buhran sonrası ekonomik düzelmeyi sağlamaktı. Programlar, tarihçiler tarafından kısaca "3 R" ile özetlenir. Özetle 3 R, işsizler ve yoksullar için rahatlama (Relief), ekonominin iyileşmesi (Recovery) ve tekrarlayan bunalımı önlemek için finansal sistemin reformu (Reform) demekti.[1] Yeni Düzen, Demokrat Parti'yi çoğunluk haline getiren (ve 1933'ten 1969'a kadar dokuz başkanlık döneminden yedisinde Beyaz Saray'ı elinde tutan partiyi de) ilerici fikirler, Güney, büyük şehir makineleri ve yeni yetkilendirilmiş işçi sendikaları ve çeşitli etnik gruplar temelinde siyasi bir yeniden yapılanma ortaya çıkardı. Cumhuriyetçiler bölünmüştü; ilerici Cumhuriyetçiler destek verirken, muhafazakarlar tüm Yeni Düzen'e iş dünyasına ve ekonomik büyümeye düşman olduğu gerekçesiyle karşı çıkıyordu. Yeniden yapılanma, 1960'lara kadar başkanlık seçimlerine hakim olan Yeni Düzen koalisyonunda kristalleşti ve karşıt muhafazakar koalisyon, 1937'den 1964'e kadar Kongre'yi iç işlerinde büyük ölçüde kontrol etti.

Kaynakça

  1. ^ Carol Berkin (2011). Making America, Volume 2: A History of the United States: Since 1865. Cengage Learning. ss. 629-632. ISBN 978-0-495-91524-9. 

Konuyla ilgili yayınlar

Araştırmalar
  • Badger, Anthony J. The New Deal: The Depression Years, 1933–1940. (2002) general survey from British perspective
  • Chafe, William H. ed. The Achievement of American Liberalism: The New Deal and its Legacies (2003)
  • Conkin, Paul K. The New Deal. (1967), a brief New Left critique.
  • Dubofsky, Melvyn, ed. The New Deal: Conflicting Interpretations and Shifting Perspectives. (1992), reader
  • Eden, Robert, ed. New Deal and Its Legacy: Critique and Reappraisal (1989), essays by scholars
  • Hiltzik, Michael. The New Deal: A Modern History (2011), popular history by journalist; 512pp
  • Leuchtenburg, William E. Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal, 1932–1940. (1963). A standard interpretive history.
  • Kennedy, David M. "What the New Deal Did," Political Science Quarterly, 124 (Summer 2009), 251–68.
  • Kennedy, David M. Freedom From Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945. (1999), survey; Pulitzer Prize
  • Kirkendall, Richard S. "The New Deal As Watershed: The Recent Literature", The Journal of American History, Vol. 54, No. 4. (Mar., 1968), pp. 839–852. in JSTOR 5 Kasım 2015 tarihinde Wayback Machine sitesinde arşivlendi., historiography
  • McElvaine Robert S. The Great Depression 2nd ed (1993), social history
  • Polenberg, Richard. "The Era of Franklin D. Roosevelt 1933–1945 A Brief History with Documents" ISBN 0-312-13310-3
  • Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr., The Age of Roosevelt, 3 vols, (1957–1960), the classic narrative history.
  • Shlaes, Amity. The Forgotten Man: A New History of the Great Depression (2007)
  • Sitkoff, Harvard. ed. Fifty Years Later: The New Deal Evaluated. (1984). A friendly liberal evaluation.
  • Wecter, Dixon. The Age of the Great Depression, 1929–1941 (1948), social history
Biyografiler
  • Beasley, Maurine H., Holly C. Shulman, Henry R. Beasley. The Eleanor Roosevelt Encyclopedia (2001)
  • Brands, H.W. Traitor to His Class: The Privileged Life and Radical Presidency of Franklin Delano Roosevelt (2008)
  • Charles, Searle F. Minister of Relief: Harry Hopkins and the Depression (1963)
  • Cohen, Adam, Nothing to Fear: FDR's Inner Circle and the Hundred Days that Created Modern America (2009)
  • Graham, Otis L. and Meghan Robinson Wander, eds. Franklin D. Roosevelt: His Life and Times. (1985). An encyclopedic reference.
  • Ingalls, Robert P. Herbert H. Lehman and New York's Little New Deal (1975)
  • Pederson, William D. ed. A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt (Blackwell Companions to American History) (2011); 35 essays by scholars; many deal with politics
Ekonomi, çiftlikler, işgücü, rahatlama
  • Bernstein, Irving. Turbulent Years: A History of the American Worker, 1933–1941 (1970), cover labor unions
  • Best, Gary Dean. Pride, Prejudice, and Politics: Roosevelt Versus Recovery, 1933–1938. (1990) ISBN 0-275-93524-8; conservative perspective
  • Blumberg Barbara. The New Deal and the Unemployed: The View from New York City (1977).
  • Bremer William W. "Along the American Way: The New Deal's Work Relief Programs for the Unemployed". Journal of American History 62 (December 1975): 636–652. in JSTOR 7 Kasım 2015 tarihinde Wayback Machine sitesinde arşivlendi.
  • Brock William R. Welfare, Democracy and the New Deal (1988), a British view
  • Burns, Helen M. The American Banking Community and New Deal Banking Reforms, 1933–1935 (1974)
  • Folsom, Burton. New Deal or Raw Deal? : How FDR's Economic Legacy has Damaged America (2008) ISBN 1-4165-9222-9, conservative interpretation
  • Gordon, Colin. New Deals: Business, Labor, and Politics, 1920–1935 (1994)
  • Grant, Michael Johnston. Down and Out on the Family Farm: Rural Rehabilitation in the Great Plains, 1929–1945 (2002)
  • Hawley, Ellis W. The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly (1966)
  • Howard, Donald S. The WPA and Federal Relief Policy (1943)
  • Huibregtse, Jon R. American Railroad Labor and the Genesis of the New Deal, 1919–1935; (University Press of Florida; 2010; 172 pages)
  • Jensen, Richard J. "The Causes and Cures of Unemployment in the Great Depression", Journal of Interdisciplinary History 19 (1989) 553–83. in JSTOR 5 Kasım 2015 tarihinde Wayback Machine sitesinde arşivlendi.
  • Leff, Mark H. The Limits of Symbolic Reform: The New Deal and Taxation (1984)
  • Lindley, Betty Grimes and Ernest K. Lindley. A New Deal for Youth: The Story of the National Youth Administration (1938)
  • Mathews, Jane De Hart. "Arts and the People: The New Deal Quest for a Cultural Democracy", Journal of American History 62 (1975): 316–39, in JSTOR
  • Malamud; Deborah C. "'Who They Are—or Were': Middle-Class Welfare in the Early New Deal" University of Pennsylvania Law Review v 151 No. 6 2003. pp 2019+.
  • McKinzie, Richard. The New Deal for Artists (1984), well illustrated scholarly study
  • Meriam; Lewis. Relief and Social Security The Brookings Institution. 1946. Highly detailed analysis and statistical summary of all New Deal relief programs
  • Mitchell, Broadus. Depression Decade: From New Era through New Deal, 1929–1941 (1947), survey by economic historian
  • Parker, Randall E. Reflections on the Great Depression (2002) interviews with 11 leading economists
  • Powell, Jim FDR's Folly: How Roosevelt and His New Deal Prolonged the Great Depression (2003) ISBN 0-7615-0165-7
  • Rosenof, Theodore. Economics in the Long Run: New Deal Theorists and Their Legacies, 1933–1993 (1997)
  • Rosen, Elliot A. Roosevelt, the Great Depression, and the Economics of Recovery (2005) ISBN 0-8139-2368-9
  • Rothbard, Murray. America's Great Depression (1963). ibertarian critique 10 Ekim 2014 tarihinde Wayback Machine sitesinde arşivlendi.
  • Saloutos, Theodore. The American Farmer and the New Deal (1982).
  • Singleton, Jeff. The American Dole: Unemployment Relief and the Welfare State in the Great Depression (2000)
  • Skocpol, Theda, and Kenneth Finegold. "State Capacity and Economic Intervention in the Early New Deal". Political Science Quarterly 97 (1982): 255–78. at JSTOR 27 Ekim 2015 tarihinde Wayback Machine sitesinde arşivlendi.
  • Skocpol, Theda, and Kenneth Finegold. "Explaining New Deal Labor Policy" American Political Science Reform (1977) 84:1297–1304 in JSTOR
  • Zelizer; Julian E. "The Forgotten Legacy of the New Deal: Fiscal Conservatism and the Roosevelt Administration, 1933–1938" Presidential Studies Quarterly (2000) 30#2 pp: 331+.
Politika
  • Alswang, John. The New Deal and American Politics (1978), voting analysis
  • Alter, Jonathan. The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope (2006), popular account
  • Badger, Anthony J. FDR: The First Hundred Days (2008)
  • Badger, Anthony J. New Deal / New South: An Anthony J. Badger Reader (2007)
  • Bernstein, Barton J. "The New Deal: The Conservative Achievements of Liberal Reform". In Barton J. Bernstein, ed., Towards a New Past: Dissenting Essays in American History, pp. 263–88. (1968), an influential New Left attack on the New Deal.
  • Best, Gary Dean. The Critical Press and the New Deal: The Press Versus Presidential Power, 1933–1938 (1993) ISBN 0-275-94350-X
  • Best, Gary Dean. Retreat from Liberalism: Collectivists versus Progressives in the New Deal Years (2002) ISBN 0-275-94656-8
  • Brinkley, Alan. The End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War. (1995) what happened after 1937
  • Cobb, James and Michael Namaroto, eds. The New Deal and the South (1984).
  • Conklin, Paul K. "The Myth of New Deal Radicalism" in Myth America: A Historical Anthology, Volume II. 1997. Gerster, Patrick, and Cords, Nicholas. (editors.) Brandywine Press, ISBN 1-881089-97-5
  • Domhoff, G. William, and Michael J. Webber. Class and Power in the New Deal: Corporate Moderates, Southern Democrats, and the Liberal-Labor Coalition (Stanford University Press; 2011) 304 pages; uses class dominance theory to examine the Agricultural Adjustment Act, the National Labor Relations Act, and the Social Security Act.
  • Ekirch Jr., Arthur A. Ideologies and Utopias: The Impact of the New Deal on American Thought (1971)
  • Fraser, Steve and Gary Gerstle, eds., The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, (1989), essays focused on the long-term results.
  • Garraty, John A. "The New Deal, National Socialism, and the Great Depression", American Historical Review, (1973) 78#4 pp. 907–44. in JSTOR 5 Kasım 2015 tarihinde Wayback Machine sitesinde arşivlendi.
  • Higgs, Robert. Crisis and Leviathan: Critical Episodes in the Growth of American Government (1987), libertarian critique
  • Ladd, Everett Carll and Charles D. Hadley. Transformations of the American Party System: Political Coalitions from the New Deal to the 1970s (1975), voting behavior
  • Lowitt, Richard. The New Deal and the West (1984).
  • Manza; Jeff. "Political Sociological Models of the U.S. New Deal" Annual Review of Sociology: 2000, 26 (2000): 297–322.
  • Milkis, Sidney M. and Jerome M. Mileur, eds. The New Deal and the Triumph of Liberalism (2002)
  • Patterson, James T. The New Deal and the States: Federalism in Transition (Princeton UP, 1969).
  • Sitkoff, Harvard. A New Deal for Blacks: The Emergence of Civil Rights as a National Issue: The Depression Decade (2008)
  • Smith, Jason Scott. Building New Deal Liberalism: The Political Economy of Public Works, 1933–1956 (2005).
  • Sternsher, Bernard ed., Hitting Home: The Great Depression in Town and Country (1970), essays by scholars on local history
  • Szalay, Michael. New Deal Modernism: American Literature and the Invention of the Welfare State (2000)
  • Tindall George B. The Emergence of the New South, 1915–1945 (1967). survey of entire South
  • Trout Charles H. Boston, the Great Depression, and the New Deal (1977)
  • Venn, Fiona (1998). The New Deal. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 1-57958-145-5. 
  • Ware, Susan. Beyond Suffrage: Women and the New Deal (1981)
Birincil kaynaklar
  • Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1951 (1951) full of useful data; online 23 Ocak 2016 tarihinde Wayback Machine sitesinde arşivlendi.
  • Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970 (1976) part 1 online 20 Ocak 2013 tarihinde Wayback Machine sitesinde arşivlendi.; part 2 online 20 Ocak 2013 tarihinde Wayback Machine sitesinde arşivlendi.
  • Cantril, Hadley and Mildred Strunk, eds. Public Opinion, 1935–1946 (1951), massive compilation of many public opinion polls
  • Carter, Susan B. et al. eds. The Historical Statistics of the United States (6 vol: Cambridge UP, 2006); huge compilation of statistical data; online at some universities
  • Gallup, George Horace, ed. The Gallup Poll; Public Opinion, 1935–1971 3 vol (1972) summarizes results of each poll.
  • Lowitt, Richard and Beardsley Maurice, eds. One Third of a Nation: Lorena Hickock Reports on the Great Depression (1981)
  • Moley, Raymond. After Seven Years (1939), conservative memoir by ex-Brain Truster
  • Nixon, Edgar B. ed. Franklin D. Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs (3 vol 1969), covers 1933–37. 2nd series 1937–39 available on microfiche and in a 14 vol print edition at some academic libraries.
  • Roosevelt, Franklin D.; Rosenman, Samuel Irving, ed. The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt (13 vol, 1938, 1945); public material only (no letters); covers 1928–1945.
  • Zinn, Howard, ed. New Deal Thought (1966), a compilation of primary sources.

Dış bağlantılar

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